Creative Writing

A Stylotextual Study of Selected Verses of Zakaran da Allah ya Nufa da Chara  (Fate Leads a Blind Hen Finds its Grain) by Sheikh Ahmad Makari Sa’idu

Abstract

​Linguists have agreed that Style is one’s way of doing things. It can be of speaking, writing, teaching and behaving which is influenced by a lot of ideologies such as knowledge, religion and culture. However, the creative thinking of writer determines his/ her style which may poster a lot of challenges to readers. In this vein, this study attempts to conduct a textual linguistic approach of selected verses of Zakaran da Allah Ya Nufa da Chara (Fate Leads a Blind Hen Finds its Grain) by Sheikh Ahmad Makari Sa’idu with the aim of identifying some of the linguistic features the writer used and to understand the historical ideology surrounding the poem and to appraise its stylotextual significance. The researchers collected the data using two techniques: the original text of the poem which were collected and sampled from a published book and then translated into English because the original copy of the poem was written in Hausa. Hofsdter’s (1998) Situational Model of translation was adopted to guide the translation Halliday’s Functional Linguistics Approach was adopted as a theoretical framework. However, in order to account the elements of the stylistic effects and thematic concerns of the linguistic features in the text, Leech and Short’s (2007) Stylistic checklist was used to breakdown randomly selected stylistic features into two categories: lexical categories, grammatical categories and context categories. The study has been able to bring to light the stylistic features in the texts, analyse how these styles were used to reveal Sheikh Mari’s ideas, and highlight the extent to which his cultural and linguistic background affect his style of writing. Therefore, this study outlined the various linguistic features which the poet has used to creatively present his poem. The study recommends that researchers and students of English as a Second Language can go further to conduct full anatomy of text interpretation and translation with a view to discovering how effectively native poets select and develop lexical items to feature their mood in conveying the subject matter of their poems. 

Key words: Systemic linguistics, Poem, Hausa, Translation and Stylotextual study 

1.1 Introduction 

Language serves for the expression of content. The speaker or writer embodies language, his experiences of the internal world of his consciousness, his reaction, cognition, and perception and also his Linguistic acts of speaking and understanding, Halliday (1971:332)

However, there is no definite time recorded in history when Hausa songs or poetry started. Hausa songs or poetry are broadly divided into two co-existing traditions. ‘The Hausa songs for these traditions are: oral song and written poetry (Zurmi, 1981:135). These terms are slightly misleading because they are intended for oral performance, but the former is composed in oral form whereas the latter is generally composed in written form, then read or performed from memory on the basis of written text. The oral song is performed by professional artists who specialised in praise-singing. Folk traditions cover everyday life events, such as marriage, relations between men and women and so on. However, this kind of song is composed and performed orally never written down by the artist, whereas the written poetry is originally focused on religious themes that are predominantly written by artists often in Arabic script (Ajami) or Hausa script.  This form of song follows fixed verse structures that usually exhibit regular rhyme externally or internally, (Duffill, 2004).

Modern Hausa poetry begins early in the 19th century, when the reformer, Shehu Uthman Dan fodio and his companions and relatives began to translate their message into Hausa. They themselves spoke Fulani and wrote normally in Arabic, but if the message was to get across to the majority of the population of the areas they were conquering, then it had to be in Hausa, Skinner (1980:131).

 1.2 Aim of the Study

The main aim of this paper is to carry out a Stylotextual Study of Zakaran da Allah ya Nufa da Chara (Fate Leads a Blind Hen Finds its Grain), (2008) by Sheikh Ahmad Makari Sa’idu. Other objectives include to:

i- to analyse the stylotextual features of Sheikh Ahmad Makari Sa’idu’s) Zakaran da Allah Ya Nufa da Chara;

ii- to identify the unique stylistic markers of his poem and

iii- to assess how Sheikh Ahmad Makari Sa’idu communicates his thematic concern in his poem

Literature Review.

2.1 Language and Context 

Halliday’s systemic functional linguistics is mainly preoccupied with the study of language use in context; secondly, it emphasises the socio-functional nature of language-the fact that Language is generally programmed to provide information on how an author is able, through various choices in meaning open to him, to communicate his message to his readers. Language is a resource people use to accomplish their purposes by expressing meaning in context. Halliday (1985:7-11) describes the fundamental concepts of this theory, saying that language exists and must be studied in various contexts, (professional settings, classrooms, etc.). Particular aspects of a given context define the meanings likely to be expressed and the language likely to be used to express those meanings. In addition, particular aspects of context comprise elements such as topics being discussed, the language users and the medium of communication.

 2.3 The Concept of Style ​

The word ‘style’ etymologically is derived from the Latin word stilus which means a pointed object used for writing and much later as a manner of writing. In medieval period, style was connected to rhetoric. Thus, it was regarded not just as a manner of writing, but as a way of persuading that is, a way of saying things to please the audience (Lewis and Charles, 1879). Then in the renaissance, style was seen as the dress of thought, some kind of adornment or ‘covering’ of thought or meaning. Traditionally, style created an intimate connection with an author’s personality. That is why each time we use language, we necessarily adopt a style of some sort, and we make a selection from a range of syntactic and lexical possibilities according to the purpose of communication. The most specific domain of style, and in many ways the most valuable starting point of stylistics, is the individual text or text extract.

2.4 Translation 

There has also been a plethora of classifications of types of translation albeit the basically overlapping and polarized dichotomy in a binary oppositions starting with the oldest ‘literal’ vs ‘free’. Others subsume ‘literary’ vs ‘non-literary’, semantic vs communicative, static vs dynamic, among others. The first type of the aforementioned pairs concerns the closeness, sometimes referred to as fidelity or faithfulness to the ST (source text). This type tends to emphasize the inseparability of form from content. The second type deems the source message conveyable in a different form.

The above pairs are classified according to the criterion of method or approach. Two criteria of classification elaborated below, namely: code and mode.

Roman Jakobson (1959) in Schulte and Biguenet, (1992:145), distinguishes three ways of interpreting a verbal sign: it may be translated into other signs of the same language, into another language, or into another code that is nonverbal system of symbols. These three types are succinctly put as follows:

i- Intralingual Translation or Rewording: It is an interpretation of verbal signs by means of other signs of the same language.

ii- Interlingual Translation or Translation Proper: It is an interpretation of verbal signs by means of some other language.

iii- Inter-semiotic Translation or Transmutation: It is an interpretation of verbal signs by means of signs of nonverbal sign system.

iv- The Deference between a Song and a Poem 

2.6 Theoretical Framework 

The theoretical framework adopted for this study is the theory of linguistic analysis developed by the British linguist M. A. K. Halliday (1971) from J. R. Firth’s (1966) theories. Halliday (1973) identifies the textual function of language which is related to the combination of ideational and interpersonal functions prominence in preference to the formalist fore-grounding and sees it as a relationship between subject matter and patterns in a text. This is where the study of style finds relevance, and it is also what we depend on for the stylistic analysis of Zakaran da Allah ya Nufa da Chara (Fate Leads a Blind Hen Finds its Grain), (2008) by Sheikh Ahmad Makari Sa’idu.

The technique used in this study is the textual analysis of data. These aspects are arranged and organised into meaningful strings of words to convey meaning in form of message for communicative purposes. Leech (1966:4) based on Halliday‘s (1961) opines that stylistics cannot be studied without language and situation which is why he has provided a preliminary exploration of stylistics and draws on Halliday’s contributions to the following dimensions or categories for the linguistic stylistic analysis of texts: Lexical, grammatical and context.  

3.1 Methodology 

This research relies heavily on related published and unpublished scholarly works. The aim is to carry out a text research on stylotextual study of Zakaran da Allah ya Nufa da Chara (Fate Leads a Blind Hen Finds its Grain), (2008) by Sheikh Ahmad Makari Sa’idu.. The methodology was derived from   the framework of Systemic Functional Grammar developed by M. A. K. Halliday (1971) and Leech and Short (2007) stylistic checklist of style markers.  

The data were collected at the primary level. The data were selected from the Hausa poem of Zakaran da Allah ya Nufa da Chara (Fate Leads a Blind Hen Finds its Grain) by Sheikh Ahmad Makari Sa’idu. Relevant scholarly works and internet materials were also consulted in the course of the study. However, the primary source of data for this study were collected in Hausa source text (ST) but in order to get enough body of data, the data were formulated and translated into English target text (TT). The findings of the study were based on the primary sources (texts) under study.  

3.2 Validity of the Translation

The model adopted for the translation was Hofstadter’s (1998) Situational Model, the model expatiates how a text would be technically translated according to intending meaning of writer  into another language without barriers. The procedures used to carry out the translation were strategic; this is because the researchers underwent series of proper consultations among experts of different disciplines related to the present study. Before adopting the model of the translation. The experts unanimously agreed that the model administered for the translation would be valid and would also serve the purpose of the study. 

However, the translation was done successfully under the guidance of the following experts: Prof. S.G. Kargi and Mal. A.S. Muhammed, all in the Department of African Languages and cultures, Faculty of Arts, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Prof. A.S. Khalid, Department of Arabic, Faculty of Arts, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria also helped us translated some Arabic technical terms used by the poet.

4.1 Data presentation and Analysis

This chapter presents data analysis which involves processing and analysing the data to arrive at meaningful insight aimed at answering the research questions in a clear concise manner.

Page 1 Hausa version (Source Text) 

Tabaraka kai kadai ke bada mulki

A dun siffar kace an sallamama 

Da wanda yakan biyo hanya sahihi

Ya samu ko tama bayan gida ma

 Da ka hau sai muce Allah ya baka

Fari ne ko Baf;i ba mai hanama 

A yau ga dan bakin fatanaKenya

Amerika duk cika sun bashi dama

 Ina sauran ta fadi ‘yanfarare

United duk cika anba Obama 

Page 1 English version (Target Text) ​​

The supreme authority you are the only one ordain power,

As it is your ego the world unanimously confirmed. 

Including he who secured the power in a legal way,

And the one who secured it illegally. 

Once you are crowned, it is a duty bound for us to accept it,

Is he just or unjust, no one denies him. 

Today, we celebrate a black Kenyan by origin, 

The whole Americans granted him chance to lead. 

Where is your pride the white Americans?

When the whole Americans paid allegiance to Obama. 

Page 2 Hausa version (Source Text) 

A karshe munga yanda ake siyasa

Gwanin tsabta da yinsa cikinsalama 

Dare zungur na kwashe babu barci 

Ina Allah kaba Barak Obama

Page 2 English version (Target Text)

 For in the end, we have seen how politics is practiced,

It is practiced with fairness and sincerity of purpose 

I have spent the whole night,

Praying enormously to Allah to bestow mantle of leadership to Obama. 

Page 4-12 Hausa version (Source Text) 

Suna dau dukiyarsu sukai kasarsa

Subar jama’a cikin rama da tsumma 

Bukata in ta taso ba’a basu

Da sun rigima yace amma rikema 

Unated gaskiya suu burge kowa

Gurin kdnfen da zabe mun ga himma 

Ina kuke ‘yan siyasan tauye yanci

Ba zanyi.shiru a kanku ba ko alama

 A bar cewa ana zabe kasarmu

Ana dai dauki dora dun zalama 

A dauko jahili sannan macuci

Ace ko alrki an so za ya koma 

Sabo da saninmtbazabe ake-ba

Akan san yaci kan ranar tazoma

 Akan zaben a soke ba natija

Daka tanka asa matsara su kamma 

Page 4-12 English version (Target Text)

They embezzle the resources of their country to build his economy,

There by leaving people in danger and abject poverty. 

When the need arose for the money, they were not been given,

If they raise alarm, he withdraws hands of friendship

 Where are you the tyrant politicians?

I will not be silent about your illicit actions

Let us not convinced we are practicing politics

It is nothing but practices of Godfatherism

 You impose on us wicked and ignorant

And informally adjudicate his return for his second tenure

They nullify election if it does not favour them

And if one utters a word, they overuse authority against them

 4.2 A- Lexical Category   

 Nouns

 Common Nouns

leadership, politics, country, economy, poverty, politicians, election

Proper Nouns

Obama, Kenyan, Allah

Abstract Nouns

authority, power, ego, fairness and sincerity

In the selected verses, noun lexical items were extracted to account their grammatical functions and stylistic variation. It is noted that common nouns are more predominant than proper nouns and abstract nouns where we have the strategic use of more common nouns like politics, politicians, election, etc. This is simply to acquaint the readers with the subject matter at stake and also to create an immediate or wider context which may facilitate our understanding of the poem. There is also more use of abstract nouns to vividly describe the somber picture of the narrative.

Verbs 

Ordain, confirmed, secured, crowned, celebrate, granted, practiced, to bestow, to lead, seen, spent, embezzle, withdraw, convince, impose, nullify, adjudicate, etc.  

Verbs carry an important part of creating meaning in spoken or written discourse. However, in the poem, Zakaran da Allah ya Nufa da Chara (Fate Leads a Blind Hen Finds its Grain), (2008) by Sheikh Ahmad Makari Sa’idu. Most of the verbs are dynamic. If cast in the Hallidayan model, we can say that most of them are material processes indicating action. For example You impose on us. This stylistically means that most African leaders come to power by force not through valid votes unlike in America where their citizens are granted rights to vote and to be voted for. Another example is: Let us not convinced we are practicing politics. The verb convinced stylistically implies the poet’s lack of interest in the restoration of Nigerian Politics and Africa at large. According to the poet, the ethics of politics has been thrown over aboard.  There are also many verbs that show concession of the poet. For example, “embezzle”, “nullify”, “crown”, etc. The occurrence of both material and mental processes strengthens our view that the physical state in African countries is predicated on the emotional state and feelings of the poet. The verbal processes are used interestingly for the expression of feelings of the poet. ​

4.3 B- Grammatical Category​

Sentence structures​​​​​​​​​

Simple sentences

i- The supreme authority, you are the only one ordain power

 ii- Today, we celebrate a black Kenyan by origin,

 iii- Where is your pride the white Americans? 

iv- It is practiced with fairness and sincerity of purpose

 v- They embezzle the resources of their country to build his economy

 Complex sentences

 i- As it is your ego, the world unanimously confirmed.

 ii- Once you are crowned, it is a duty bound for us to accept it

 iii- For in the end, we have seen how politics is practiced,

 iv- When the need arose for the money, they were not been given

 v- They nullify election if it does not favour them

Sheikh Ahmad Makari Sa’idu uses simple and complex sentences in the poem under study. This paves the way for him to manipulate and engulf his messages through economy of average sentence lengths in order to achieve poetic formula.

4.4 Analysis of Context in the Poem: Zakaran da Allah Ya Nufa da Chara (2008)

The realisation of context in language is based on the metafunctional spectrum: Field is realised by the ideational metafunction, Tenor by interpersonal and Mode by the textual. Thus, we shall consider the context of the novels along these lines.

Context refers to the area of operation of the language activity. It can be an essay, a discussion, or an academic seminar. Through this dimension, we can recognise the register used and the social action that is taking place in a work of art. The registers used in poem under study were the register of politics. We have come across words like: Obama, Kenyan, Allah, Bush, leadership, politics, country, economy, poverty, politicians, election,authority, power, ego, fairness and sincerity. These register helps in the systemic use of lexis to communicate the ideology of the poet who tries to present the image of political affairs of America and the status core of Nigerian politics. The poet symbolizes two characters: Barrack Obama and G.W. Bush. In the poem Barrack Obama as a symbol peace but W. Bush is portrayed as a symbol of dictatorship. 

We see the use of words like: overuse authority, wicked, ignorant, Godfatherism and tyrant politicians used to signify oppression. None of this can be confined to a type of situation. The field of discourse has a stylistic relevance that tends to determine choices in the ideational or experiential component of language, that is, how language is structured for use and the explication of ideas or how languages represents our experiences and our reflections on them.

4.5 Analysis of Tenor of the Poem

The analysis of tenor, takes into account the social relations between the participants in the linguistic exchange, since the kind of social relation affects the participants and their linguistic exchange, because social exchange affects the use of language. The emitter is the poet, Sheikh Ahmad Makari Sa’idu, and the addressees can be considered as both the society at the time of his writing and any reader that approaches the poem at any other time. The Sheikh poetically addresses the tyrant superpowers that milk resources of underdeveloped countries there by leaving the indigenes in abject poverty and the black world of torture who claimed to have been copying and practicing democracy despite it is dictatorial system of leadership style the practice.

– The supreme authority, you are the only one ordain power,

– As it is your ego, the world unanimously confirmed. 

– Including he who secured the power in a legal way, 

– And the one who secured it illegally. 

4.6 Analysis of the mode of the poem

The mode of discourse makes reference to what part the language plays, the linguistic code used in the channel of communication, both in terms of the medium (oral, written, written to be spoken). To what participants expect language to do for them in a situation, the symbolic organisation of the text, which could either have a spontaneous and relatively loose structure, its function in the context and the rhetorical component, that is, if we are to persuade, teach, state and so on through the text. 

Sheikh uses the poetic genre to present his ideas. Therefore the channel used in the poem is the written medium, the language is not restricted to presenting a series of ideas and gives a detailed description of facts presented which are coherent for example in the verses below:

 Today, we celebrate a black Kenyan by origin, 

The whole Americans granted him chance to lead.

 The above verses are like many others verses. They are well understood and correctly placed for easy understanding. 

4.7 Findings 

i- The study analyses finds out that the stylotextual features of selected verses in Zakaran da Allah Ya Nufa da Chara by Sheikh Ahmad Makari Sa’idu are sensational in the sense that he uses certain lexical items strategically such as: leadership, politics, country, economy, poverty, politicians, election, etc. to acquaint the readers the subject matter at stake and also to create an immediate or wider context which may facilitate readers’ understanding about the poem.

ii- It  identifies the unique stylistic markers of his poem through the mouthpiece of some linguistic items, such as: Ordain, confirmed, secured, crowned, celebrate, granted, practiced, to bestow, to lead, seen, spent, embezzle, withdraw, convince, impose, nullify, adjudicate, etc, to justify the tyrannical aspect American leadership and to some extent the negative commitment of  dictatorial democratic leaders who want to own position of leadership for life or even secure the position through illegal means. 

iii- The study also succinctly assesses how Sheikh Ahmad Makari Sa’idu communicates his thematic concern in his poem; Zakaran da Allah Ya Nufa da Chara. It is evident that the main subject matter of the poem under study is to expose malpractices in the world of politics so as to restore social order for the sake of peaceful co-existence, social development and infrastructural advancement. Example: Where are you the tyrant politicians? I will not be silent about your illicit actions.

5.1 Conclusion 

In conclusion, it noted that Sheikh Ahmad Makari Sa’idu makes a superb job in shrouding the chains of textual items, clauses and sentence cohesion in the poem; Zakaran da Allah Ya Nufa da Chara As rightly observed, the themes of the poem slate from lower tunes and gradually swell to higher tunes (specific to general). This means that the poet writes not only but also to specifically spell out the intricacies of world democracy and the ills within African politics..

In the light of the analysis made from the Stylotextual perspectives of the selected verses in Zakaran da Allah Ya Nufa da Chara by Sheikh Ahmad Makari Sa’idu and the discussion regarding the analysis, it is therefore expedient to say that the contribution of Sheikh Ahmad Makari Sa’idu in Hausa literature cannot be overemphasised. This is so because his talented potentials, manipulation and educational experiences are uneven in the community of Hausa poets.

5.2 Recommendations for Further Study 

The study recommends that researchers and students of English as a Second Language can go further to conduct full anatomy of text interpretation and translation with a view to discovering how effectively native poets select and develop lexical items to feature their mood in conveying the subject matter of their poems.

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SPOUSE ABUSE AND SEXPOLITATION IN AMMA DARKO’S FACELESS AND BEYOND THE HORIZON

ABSTRACT

This paper provides an in-depth analysis of the theme and characterization of Amma Darko’s novels Faceless and Beyond the Horizon. In this essay, the paper argues that Darko’sthematic content in her novels borders on the issues affecting women and children in their immediate environment. In this regard, the paper unravels the fact that social, economic and cultural issues such as sexual exploitation, domestic violence, patriarchy, corruption, and rape are still rife in contemporary African societies as presented in both novels – Faceless andBeyond the Horizon. To this end, psychoanalytic criticism and feminist criticism will be adopted as the theoretical frame work for this analysis. In conclusion, the paper espouses that the existence of a literary work is heavily determined by social situations and that there is a reciprocal relationship between a literary phenomenon and social structures. Thus, it is apposite to say that literature proves very useful in understanding the socio-political situation, the world view and creativity of the writer.

Keywords:  literature, African writer, Contemporary Africa Society, Psychoanalytic Criticism, and Darko  

Introduction

In every age, literature has always served as a mirror; and creative writers have invariably shown concern for the social, political and moral issues of their societies. Thus, the African creative writer is an integral member of the society; one who understands and brings to fore the collective social reality as well as an embodiment of the yearnings, aspirations, mores, ethos and culture of the people.

Emmanuel Inedu posits that: “The writer being an integral member of the society knows and feels the lives and felt experiences of his people and society, bringing to bare the intricacies and peculiarities that define and characterize man in his society” ( 2 ).  Inedu cites AllwellAbalogu to emphases that; “The literary artist is like a seer, a prophet, conscience of the society” (3). In this vein, Ngugi WaThiongo in his seminal book Writers in Politics writes that; “The writer as a human being is a product of history, of time and space. As a member of society he belongs to a certain class and he is inevitably a participant in the class struggle of his time.”(68). Ngugi’s submission lends credence to the fact that the social task of a writer is to advocate for social change and adjustment in order to achieve harmony and stability in the society. However, the writer’s responsibility in the society is to ask questions, challenge conventions, creates awareness and consciousness, awaken emotions and impulses among his people. In this regard, a writer is like a seer, a prophet, a teacher, a chronicler, societal watchdog, the conscience of the society etc. ​​​

There is a consensus that writers are very important members of the society, they occupy a vintage position in society playing pivotal role in the sanity of man and his society. More importantly, the African writer as we have come to know is one who probes identifies and proffers solution to the historical, political, economic, social and cultural forces that tend to stagnate and submerge his people. In view of the many functions of the African writer in his society, Chinua Achebe in a conference at Makerere University College in Kampala Uganda had pointedly examined the reason why an African writer should be socially and politically committed thus, he declared that:

An African creative writer who tries to avoid the big social and political issues of the contemporary Africa will end up being completely irrelevant – like that absurd man in the proverb who leaves his burning house to purse a rat fleeing from the flames (78).

In a Similar vein, Ngugi wa Thiongo contends that: “No writer of imaginative Literature from the very best to the moderate significant can really avoid the big issues of the day, for literature to the extent that it is a mirror unto man’s nature, must reflect social reality or certain aspects of the society” (70).

In the light of the above assertions, the obvious function of literature and the writer cannot be exempted from the society. This is because literature is a medium through which the writer can contribute to the realization of society’s goals and aspirations. Through literature the society is evaluated, interpreted and re-interpreted. It is on the basis of this that we shall evaluate Amma Darko’s novel Faceless and Beyond the Horizon through psychoanalytic lens. 

Theoretical Framework 

 For the purpose of this study, psychoanalytical criticism will be engaged as the theoretical framework. This is because, it best suites and captures the essence of the study. In her insightful book: Critical Theory Today: A User-Friendly guild, Lois Tyson lucidly engages in a deep and thorough discussion of the psychoanalytic criticism, addressing issues that scholars have over the years harped on in regard to the interpretation of literature. In Tyson’s analysis, she contends that: “if psychoanalysis can help us better understand human behavior, then it must certainly be able to help us understand literary texts, which are about human behavior” (11).

Similarly, M.H Abrahams writes that “psychological criticism deals with a work of literature primarily as an expression, in an indirect and fictional form, of the state of mind and the structure of personality of the individual author” (289).The insight offered by M.H Abrams reaffirms the fact that psychoanalytical criticism is based on the assumption that the details and form of a work of literature are correlated with its author’s distinctive mental and emotional traits. It should be noted that psychological theory is used as a model for understanding human thoughts, emotions and behaviors. Thus, psychoanalytic criticism explores the author’s personality in order to explain and interpret a literary work. In addition, it makes reference to literary works in order to establish, biographically, the personality of the author and as well the mode of reading literary works specifically in order to experience the distinctive subjectivity or consciousness, of its authors. Psychoanalytic criticism emerged in the early 1920s through the views expressed by Sigmund Freud whose scholarly works developed the premises and dynamic form of psychology that he termed “psychoanalysis”.

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) was the most celebrated proponent of the psychoanalytic mode which best known for his theories of the origins of the unconscious, and the defense mechanism of repression. His arguments as regards to the notion of the “unconscious” and other concepts such as dream interpretation, the sexuality theory – ID, Ego, super Ego, and the Oedipus complex are well explored in his insightful lectures which are contained in a book entitled Introduction to Psychoanalysis (1920). It was this book that set forth the theoretical framework of what is known as “classical psychoanalytic criticism.”

Freud’s fundamental contributions in this regard have been rich and relevant. Thus, he developed psychoanalysis as a procedure for the analysis and therapy of neuroses, but later expanded it to account for many developments and practices in the history of civilization, mythology, and religion as well as literature and other arts. Freud’s critical thinking as he points out is speculative. However, Freud’s ideas have over a long period of time evolved and extensively revised by other literary scholars such as Juliet Mitchell, Jacques Lacan, Norman .O. Brown among others. These theorists have in one way or the other improved or used Freud’s ideas to respond to literary texts or offer valuable explanation of patriarchy, sexism, etc. Psychoanalytic criticism as a theory can be applied to any other modern literary theory. This is so because psychoanalytic criticism attempts to explain the how, and whys of human actions without developing an aesthetic theory. Charles Bressler’s observation in this regard is apt and pertinent. Thus, he posits that: “Marxists, feminists, and new Historicists, for example can utilize psychoanalytic method in their interpretation without violating their own hermeneutics” (89).

In the light of the above view, it is apposite to say that psychoanalytic criticism is best regarded as an approach to literary interpretation rather than a particular school of criticism. In view of the foregoing, feminists and psychoanalytic critics such as Juliet Mitchell, Jacques Lacan, Norman Holland, KazinAlfred, among others have explored the ideological bases of psychoanalysis. For the propose of this study, Freud’s concept of sexuality will be used as a yardstick in our analysis of Darko’scharacters in Faceless and Beyond the Horizon. When we examine Freud’s notion of repression and sexuality in Darko’sFaceless and Beyond the Horizon through psychoanalytic lens, then, we see that it is comprised of characters with a psychological history that begins in childhood experiences in the family and each with patterns of adolescent and adult behaviourthat are as a result of that early experience. It is, therefore, significant to note that one area of human behaviour explored in Darko’s novels that has important implications for psychoanalytic criticism is found in the dysfunctional parenting and sexual abuse of the female characters as portrayed in the novels.

Darko’s Faceless is an exceptional novel that x-rays the story of children plunged in the streets by parental neglect and the issue of sexual exploitation, domestic violence, among others. Christiana Udogu in her very insightful essay on AmmaDarko’s Faceless states that:

A record of the families in the novel, faceless, shows that the parents live together for a while, have children and separate, leaving the children in the care if (SIC) their mothers. This method of parenting becomes dangerous as it affects the physical and psychological development of the children (91).

This is however, the lot of many street children in the novel. Fofo, the co-protagonist of the novel, becomes a street child at the age of fourteen. She leaves home like his two brothers in search of food and money on the street. Her biological father has abandoned the family. It is through a dialogue between her and Kabira and Dina (the workers of MUTE) that the reader is aware of the causes that “dump” Fofo on the streets; “so you started going out to beg because there was no money?” “And no food, that was more pressing “she went on, “When there is no food, you don’t wait to be asked by anyone to go out and beg. Hunger is a foe and it is overpowering. When it pushes you. You go…” (129). The street children (Odarley, Baby T, and Fofo etc) depicted by Amma Darko suffer from absentee father Syndrome and abandonment.

The story in Faceless is divided into four parts. The various divisions of the novel contributes to the development of the plot. The part one of the book introduces the reader to Fofo and how, through pilfering, she bumps into Kabira, the lady working with MUTE (a non-governmental organization interested in information gathering and documentation), whose acts of generosity set Fofo on a new road towards rehabilitation. Also in book one, we meet sylva po, the media man who publicizes the issue of Fofo’s murder sister (Baby T), and who, together with MUTE, assume the diligent role to find the murderers. Book Two is mainly a flash back made up of only three chapters (chapters 14 to 16). It is the background story of Maa Tsuru; the mysticism surrounding her birth and her exploitation by the very man she expects to care for her. 

It also tells the story of how Maa Tsuru’s children came into the world only to be thrown into the streets to eke out a living. It is important to note that part two of the novel is “sandwiched between part one, which is made up of thirteen chapters and part three, which has nine chapters (chapters 17-25). Part two of the novel provides us with a classic template of form agreeing with content, in that part two, taken up by only three chapters, speaks about the constricted life of Maaa Tsuru. Maa Tsuru is one of the major characters in the novel. She is the mother of Baby T and Fofo. Right from conception, Maa Tsuru’slife seems accursed and riddled with foreboding fear as though she is doomed to end badly. She was impregnated by Kewi, her first husband at age sixteen to his mother’s displeasure. However Kwei takes a bottle of ‘schnapps to Tsuru’s family and announces that he had come to show his face” (119). She had four children with Kewi – two boys and two girls but kewiabandoned her after the birth of their two sons. 

A more useful and I think more accurate way of understanding Maa Tsuru’s relationship with the men in her life is to see it from Freudian’s psychological lens of fear of abandonment. This concept of Freud’s theory explores the unshakable belief that our friends and loved ones are going to desert us (physical abandonment) Kwei disappeared before the birth of Baby T, their third child. He later lured Maa Tsuru into accepting him once again as a husband and got her pregnant again which resulted to the birth of Fofo. Maa Tsuru, as the novel shows, has no skill; she is not educated either and hardly could provide the needs of her children. In addition, she is portrayed in the novel as a woman with a penchant for making excuses for her irresponsible lifestyle and the curse is one of the often invoked excuses.  This penchant contributes to her daughter-Fofo’s resentment because she considered her as an irresponsible mother. Her irresponsible lifestyle is also portrayed in her affair with Nill Kpakpo – a jobless and irresponsible man whose motive is to exploit her unfortunate plight. Maa Tsuru’sconduct in the relationship depicts her as a stupid, shameless and irresponsible mother. She foolishly accepts a relationship from a lazy and uncaring man, Kpakpo, who gradually placed her at a disadvantaged position. She feeds him from the proceed of her children’s sweat in the street especially from the money from Baby T’s prostitution. 

In the novel, Maa Tsuru comes across as a cheap woman. Right under the nose of her adolescent sons, she is making love with a co-habiting man. When eventually the boys take the initiative of leaving the house to avoid the shame and outrage of it all, she is not even bothered. Her comment in that regard illustrate her attitude towards her family; “She had noticed them toss and turn on the mats the whole night through. They saw it all for how long could they go on? Better let them go. They were no longer kids. The streets had accelerated their growth. It was time to be on their own” (131).

It is significant to note that the author downplays the role of superstition in the life of Maa Tsuru. Rather she juxtaposes issues in her life in such a way as to demonstrate Tsuru’s own irresponsible choices that are made to culminate in her failure as a mother rather than the power of superstition or fate. In the novel, Kabira one of the major character is a totally different character from Maa Tsuru. Philomena Yeboah’s comment on the character of Maa Tsuru is illustrative:

For Maa Tsuru, herself-actualization lies in sex and monetary rewards. Motivated by money, MaaTsuru pushes her children into labour: her two sons were already running errands at the sea side before they attained the age of ten (124).

Furthermore, she observed the difference in character between the two women-Maa Tsuru and Kabira; “whereas in Maa Tsuru we find an example of a mother unable to take care of her children, especially her daughters, in Kabira we find a mother who makes sensible choices, and is able not only to mother her own children but to mother Fofo as well. Philomena Yeboah in an interview with Amma Darko explains that “the character of Kabira is created as a role model for modern working mothers” (125). To this end, Darko admits in the same interview that “a character like Kabira deserves to be studied carefully and imitated by any woman who does not want to limit her roles to the kitchen and the bedroom” (125). 

In Darko’s Faceless, Maa Tsuru epitomizes the failed mother crushed under the trails of motherhood. However, Kabirais portrayed as a successful mother who refuses to be defeated by the trials of motherhood. In this regard, Maa Tsuru’s is a symbol of the defeated, pitiable African woman while Kabira is a confident and assertive character. The basic differences in the lifestyles of these two characters lies in the fact that one (Kabira) is elevated and positioned as a model for the reader while the other (Maa Tsuru) is demonized because of the irresponsible choices she makes in the novel. It is instructive to note that both characters are bedeviled with the trials of motherhood; Kabira is able to strategize in such a way that she is not burdened by these trials. For instance, Kabira is married with three children; she works with the NGO called MUTE who documents “serious events that gain little attention from the government. Although she is not satisfied with her meager salary Kabira continues with her work because she derives great job satisfaction from it. Her husband Alade is an architect whose belief and practice of patriarchy creates tensions and sometimes deprives Kabira of her joy as a married woman. Kabira is introduced in the novel as, “the mother, wife, worker and battered car owner…” (34)  No day passed that Kabira didn’t wonder how come the good lord created a day to be made up of only twenty-four hours, because from dawn to dusk, domestic schedules gobbled her up; office duties ate her up alive, her three children devoured her with their sometime realistic and many times very unrealistic demands’ while the icing on the cake, their father, needed do no more than simply be your regular husband, and she was in perpetual quandary. In spite of all these, she surmounts all challenges and is able to raise her children properly. On other hand, Maa Tsuru is described in the following passage by Darko as a woman who is overwhelmed by trials of motherhood:

In the midst of angry mothers and screaming children and bleating goats and sheep, Ma Tsurulooked like a soul drowned in torpidity. The baby in her arm didn’t seem to even impact into her oblivion. And but for the sounds from the child’s throat, her world was dead. A life dissolved in absolute lethargy (42).

In the except above, Maa Tsuru has literally allowed the trials of motherhood to sap both her energy and her breast milk: “And but the sounds from her child’s throat, her world was dead” (42) the picture illustrated here points to a mother’s irreversible self-destruction impacting on a tiny baby. In this same vein, Maa Tsuru’s soul is described as “drowned in torpidity” that means she is “oblivious” to the reality around her. The author described her life as one “dissolved in      absolute lethargy” (42). This shows that her mental faculties are dulled resulting in physical shabbiness and slowness. All this literary description of Maa Tsuru’s state of mind and wellbeing clearly shows that she has accepted her situation. 

Another significant character in the novel is Fofo the younger sister to Baby T. she is introduced in the novel as a street child. She is the friend of Odarley, a co-street child. The Reader’s first encounter with fofo in the novel shows that she is a carelessly strong willed character. Her strong willed behaviourmakes perfect sense within the context of her present circumstance. Fofo’s confrontational reaction to her mother’s reason behind the plea that Fofo run far away from poison underscores her strong willed character:

“Why should I go away, mother?

Who are they?”

Maa Tsuru wiped away her tears

With the back of her hand and blew her nose into her cover cloth. “It is baby T she said eventually… “I don’t know. But you should never have fed him and his sons at Baby T’s expense. You don’t see her. We don’t know how she has grown to look like… (46-47).

Fofo’s assertive and smart character makes her an interesting character in the novel. It is also noteworthy to point out that the author employs satire as a literary device to ridicule the state of moral decadence, human rot, suffering, sexual exploitation, streetism etc that permeate the African society with a focus on Ghana as a case in point. These social ills explored in the novel include: – parental neglect and abandonment: Baby T, Fofo, Poison, Odarley and many other children like Biblio are all victims of parental irresponsibility. For this reason, they engage in vices like stealing, prostitution, killing, rape etc. Their dreams of going to school and securing a better future is aborted as a result of lack of parental guidance and commitment as most parents shy away from their responsibilities.

Amma Darko’s novel Beyond the Horizon is essentially a feminist novel which unfolds images of female exploitation, lies, deceit, threats, brutality, seduction and prostitution. It tells the story of the battering and maltreating of a naïve illiterate African woman, Mara by her callous, greedy and inconsiderate husband, Akobi Ajaman popularly known as (Cobby) in the novel. It is pertinent to note that the novel explores the Ghanaian experience as emigrants in European countries. However, the study of this novel clearly avoids any feminist cant. Rather, the researcher’s objective in this essay is to examine the structure, theme and characterization in the novel.  A cursory look at the content and form of the novel shows an interface between literary stylistics and linguistic stylistics. This is creatively woven together in the message and form by the author, thus enabling the reader to make a meaning out of the text. However, this research has employed psychoanalytic criticism in dissecting the structure of the novel- Beyond the Horizon.

Structurally, Darko’s novel Beyond the Horizon starts in media res with the heroine Mara in a room in a brothel at the outskirts of Munich managed by Oves, a shorter version of the name overseer. She is shown sitting before her large oval mirror, staring painfully what is left of her. From what she says about her overused body, especially her private parts and breasts, her “tired graceless bosom” portrays her as pitiable character. Mara weeps and bemoans her life as a professional prostitute. From her account of her despoliation by the “rigid tools” of her different male customers, as well as her permanent hook on dope to energize her, we see the incorrigibility of Mara. However, she is determined more than ever before to remain a prostitute and keep the facts about her life secret from her people in Africa. Therefore, it is this picture of Mara as a prostitute in Munich, which was foreshadowed at the opening of the novel that also ends the story, thus providing a thematic unity for the novel. It is instructive to know that Mara did not start her life as a prostitute. She was lured into prostitution by her Husband Akobi who sent for her to join him in Germany. Mara’s experience in Munich is illustrative of what many female immigrants go through in Europe in search of greener pasture. She is portrayed as a reserved, unsophisticated, superstitious and well-mannered young girl whose approach to life is modeled on the time-tested tradition of accepting male control as God ordained by wives. Thus, she is ready to adhere to her mother’s advice without hesitation:

Your life is your road, Mara, God puts you at the start of this road and propels you to walk on, and only He knows where your road will end, but it is the road he chose for you and you must walk it with gratefulness because it’s the best for you (3).

​Mara’s orientation and culture is couched in the biblical submissiveness and quietism of a woman in marriage. This really plays down her fighting spirit at the beginning of the novel. Mara dutifully obeys Akobi and also feeds him with food items received as payment for her refuse-dumping job for other occupants in their slummy neighborhood. Jude Agho in his canonical book on New perspective on African literature writes that Amma Darko’s novel: “shows Mara’s progression from a timid naïve village girl to the status of a full-grown woman as well as details her intense psychological traumatization though her experience as a prostitute…” (37). 

In the light of this observation, it is important to note that Mara’s role in the novel occupies much of the space and thematic preoccupation in the text. It is imperative to note that the story is told from her protagonist point-of-view. The heroine-narrator personalizes her narratorial role. However, no other narrative method could have enhanced this role as much as the first-person Omniscient style does. This is the consistent narrative mode adopted by Amma Darko virtually in all her novels. 

Akobi is another major character in the novel. He is the husband of Mara. He is​ selfish, greedy and callous. His marriage to Mara in the novel depicts a relationship between master and servant. Akobi’s maltreatment, control, and dominance is clearly seen in his display of hatred and hostility towards Mara. His contempt for Mara can also be seen in so many ways. For instance, he sleeps alone in the grass mattress while Mara sleeps on the bare floor.  This pattern is only changed when Akobi wants to make love to Mara. He also humiliates her in the public by separating from her while in the public. It is evident that Mara suffers deprivation, repression and brutality at the hands of Akobi. Her shoddy appearance in the novel is as a result of Akobi’s selfishness and exploitation. Often, he beats Mara for every little human mistake which ought to be overlooked. For instance, Akobi unsatisfied that Mara does not put interest on the loan she borrowed from him to start a petty trading on cooked eggs inside the motor park, gives her a sound beating. It is not surprising to know that Akobi abandon the upkeep of the home squarely on Mara. In order to save up his salaries for his trip to abroad of which he refuses to discuss with her. 

Akobi is portrayed in the novel as a selfish and exploitative husband. He marries a timid unattractive German wife, Gitte for the purpose of getting a five-year residence permit. He fakes his love for Gitte and cheats with Comfort his heart throb who was invited by Akobi through an agent. It is pertinent to know that Gitte, Akobi’s German wife is a victim of his deceit, lies and selfishness just as much as Mara. Akobi and his friend Oseylater blackmail Mara who was invited to Germany by Akobi into prostitution with the sole aim of making profit from the trade of her body. However, with the help of Vivian, Osey’s girlfriend, and Kaye, the prostitute wife of Pompey, proprietor of the brothel named Peepy, Mara arranges to marry a German man by proxy and as well acquires her residence permit for a period of five years. Towards the end of the novel, Akobi is jailed by German immigration authorities, comfort is repatriated to Nigeria. 

It is worthy of note that Amma Darko uses many instances to portray the society in her novels. Among such instances in Beyond the Horizon is the oppressive nature of the male characters. Through what Kaye, a character in the novel calls “sisterhood solidarity” we see a concerted effort made to create in women the awareness to fight for their rights by bonding together to achieve ultimate freedom from male oppression. This really the basis for the relationship between Mara and Vivian, or even that between herself and Kaye, African women who also experienced male brutality and were forced into prostitution by their Africa male friends. The same spirit of solidarity is displayed when Mara and Gitte, Akobi’s German wife, both deceived and exploited by him, became friends towards the end of the novel.

The male characters in both novels are wife beaters, cheats, irresponsible husbands or polygamists. They exploit the womeJnin their lives. For example Nill-Kakpo and Kewi in Faceless and Akobi and Ossy in Beyond the Horizon. In Darko’s Faceless and Beyond the Horizon, human dignity is betrayed and corrupted at the profit of a decadent society. Moreover the novels portray the fact that it is irresponsible parenting that breeds vices in the society. It is also instructive to note that the language employed in both novels is the foremost characteristic of form; it is through language that form actualizes itself. The language employed in both novels is sensuous, emotion laden, loose and conversational. Also, Amma Darko makes use of dramatic dialogue between characters as a way of developing the plot of the novels. In Faceless, imagery of decay, destitute children, miscreants are portrayed through characterization and language while in Beyond the Horizon Darko’s racy style allows for a consummate blend of the novel’s dual setting-following the events in Africa and Europe. The narrative thrust of the novel overrides the use of dialogue among the characters since we find more of description of the action and events in the novel by the author. 

As noted, Darko’s Faceless and Beyond the Horizondemonstrate ample sensitivity to the social, moral and economic wellbeing of women and children in contemporary African society. In this regard such issues as streetism, patriarchy, government indifference, irresponsible parenting, sexual exploitation, domestic violence among others are well explored in both novels. The novels also points out the failure of post-independence governments to protect its children and its citizens. In the novels Ghana represent the entire African countries whose many citizens are immigrants in European countries. It is significant to note that Darko in her novels portrays a disease and discordant African society, in which the phenomenon of street children in contemporary African society keeps rising because of parental neglect, poverty and illiteracy.

 Conclusion:

The preoccupation of this paper has been with showing how Amma Darko, has relied on Freud’s theory of psycho analysis in the handling of themes and characters in her novels Faceless and Beyond the Horizon. The paper identifies certain ways in which male characters replay unresolved oedipal complex which involves what is often called the ‘good girl/bad girl” attitude to woman. Also the paper has revealed that Darko’s central message in both novels centers on dysfunctional parenting, exploitation, sexual abuse, prostitution etc. Thus, her protagonists in both novels are subjugated and oppressed which betrayed their human dignity. Furthermore, the peculiar success in both novels reveals how the author successfully renders an emotional story through a veritable point of views.  Above all, her use of language reflects the typical contemporary African society. There are, for instance, the uses of proverbs, imageries; and reliance on lexical proxies drawn from her material environment to describe human characters and as well identifies the psychology of the various characters. 

Works cited

Achebe, Chinua. “The African Writer and the Biafra cause.” Morning Yet on Creation Day. Heinemann, 1975 Pg 79.

Abrams, M.H. A Glossary of Literary Terms. 8th edition with contribution by Geoffery Galt harpham. ThomapsonHigher education, 2008.

Agho. A-Jude New Perspectives on African Literature Jubilee Press, Benin. 1999.

Inedu, Emmanuel, The Place of Writers in the Prevailing Political Atmosphere words in a season of Change. Unpublished. 2016. Pg. 2.

Emmanuel. Beyond Rhetorics: Literature As a Paradigm for change in Ogele: ANA Imo Anthology vol. 3. Lieu House of Excellence Ventures 2014.

Thiongo, Ngugi Wa. Writers in Politics: A Re-engagement with issues of Literature and society Nairobi Heinemann, 1981.

Darko, Amma. Faceless. Sub-Saharan Publishers 2003.

Darko, Amma. Beyond the Horizon London: Heinemann. 1995.

Freud, Sigmund. Introductory lectures on Psycho-analysis.Trans Joan Riviere Allen, 1992.

Bressler, Charles. Literary Criticism. An Introduction to Theory and Practice. Prentice-Hall, Inc.   1994.

Yeboah, Philomena. A street child’s Revolt Against her Mother and Society: Lessons from Amma Darko’s faceless. Journal of Global Initiatives: Policy, Pedagogy, Perspective Vol. 8 pg. 124.

Udogu, Christiana. Dyfunctional Parenting Human Dignity in the 21st century: A study of Darko’s Faceless. African Research Review vol 12. Pg (3).

Tyson, Lois. Critical theory Today: A User friendly Guild.Second edition. Routledge 2006.

Onukogu, Allwell and Onyerionwu, Ezechi. 21st century Nigerian Literature; An Introductory Text. Kraft Books Limited 2009.

NNYOCHA ABỤ OLE NA OLE DỊ N’AKWỤKWỌ ABỤ ECHICHE NKE EZEUKO R. O. NA ANỌWAI J. I., NAKWA AKWỤKWỌ ABỤ EKELE DIKE NKE G. N. ECHEBIMA

NDUBANYE

Ndị Igbo nwere abụ dị iche iche  ha ji ebi ndụ ha. Ọ dịghị ọnọdụ ọbụla gba aka abụ ya na ya so. Ederede a gbadoro ụkwụ na ịkọwapụta n’uju mpụtara abụ ndị a a họọrọ n’akwụkwọ abụ abụọ. Nchọpụta na-egosi na nghọta abụ abụrụla ihe siri ike n’ebe ụmakwụkwọ taa nọ. Ọtụtụ ndị nkuzi Igbo na-enwekwa mmekpa ahụ n’ebe inyocha ma kọwapụta ebumuuche ọkpọabụ site na abụ ya ụfọdụ. Ọ bụ ụdị ihe dị otu a ka nwanchọcha jiri nyochaa abụ asatọ sitere n’akwụkwọ abụ abụọ. 

Abụ ndị e nyochara bụ: Ego, Ule, Ụra na Ụmụakwụkwọ, Ọkọchị, Adịm Oji, Onye ka O zuuru, Ịhụnaanya na Ndụ na Ọnwụ. Abụ ndịa si n’aka ndị odee atọ dị iche iche. Ederede a na-atụnye aro ka ndị nkuzi na ụmụakwụkwọ na-enyocha abụ dịgasi n’akwụkwọ abụ dị iche iche. Ime nke a ga-eme ka nghọta abụ ndị a daruo ala n’ebe ụmụakwụkwọ nọ ma meekwa ka ụjọ ha na-enwe n’ebe abụ nọ bụrụ ihe lara ala.

 Akwụkwọ abụ e si wee họrọ abụ ndị e nyochara bụ:

(a)​Echiche – Ezuko na Anọwai

(b)​ Abụ Ekele Dike – G.N. Echebima

IHE NDỊ A NA-ELEBA ANYA MGBE A NA-ENYOCHA ABỤ 

Lekwa anya n’ihe mgbakwasị ụkwụ a ga-ebu n’uche oge a na-atụle.

 ABỤ 

1. Aha abụ.
2. Aha odee maọbụ ndị odee.
3. Isiokwu dị n’abụ.
4. Usoro/Nhazi abụ.
5. Isiokwu dị na stanza.
6. Nchịkọta ihe abụ ahụ na-ekwu/ụdị abụ ọ bụ.
7. Echiche dị n’abụ ahụ.
8. Asụsụnka/atụmatụokwu dị n’abụ ahụ.
9. Olu – dịka olumba batara n’abụ ahụ. Kedụ mba nwe olu ahụ. 

ABỤ NDỊ SI N’AKA EZUKO NA ANỌWAI

1.​Ego

2.​Ule

3.​Ụra na ụmụakwụkwọ

4.​Ọkọchị 

ABỤ NDỊ SI N’AKA G.N. ECHEBIMA

1.​A dị m Oji

2.​Onye ka O Zuuru

3.​Ịhụnaanya

4.​Ndụ na Ọnwụ

 ABỤ SI N’AKA AKWỤKWỌ ECHICHE

Nnyocha Abụ ole na ole dị n’akwụkwọ Abụ ECHICHE nke Ezeuko R.O. na Anọwai J.I dere.

 EGO

1. Aha Abụ a bụ Ego:

Aha ndị dere Abụ a n’ihi na ha dị abụọ bụ Ezeuko R.O na Anọwai J.I. Ha abụọ na-akụzi nkụzi n’ụlọakwụkwọkoleji dị n’Agụlụ na Nri n’otu n’otu. 

2. Isiokwu dị n’abụ: 

Abụ a na-akọwa maka Ego. O toro ego ma kọwakwaa mkpa mile ego na-egboro mmadụ. Na mmechi abụ ha, ọ jụrụ ajụjụ gosiri na o dochaghị ha anya ihe elu na alaji asọpụrụ ego. 

3. Ụdị Abụ: 

Abụ a bụ otito n’ihi na ọ na-aja ego n’ụzọ dị iche iche. 

4. Usoro/Nhazi Abụ:

Ha hazịrị abụ ha na nkeji na nkeji

Nkeji nke mbụ dị ahịrịokwu anọ.

Nkeji nke abụọ dị ahịrịokwu ise

Nkeji nke atọ dị ahịrịokwu atọ

Ahịrị ndị a ahaghị nhatanha. Ụfọdụ ka ibe ha ogologo ebe ndị

ọzọ ha. 

Isiokwu dị na nkeji ọbụla:

(a) Na nkeji nke mbụ aga m asị na ọ na-egosi obi isi ike Ego na-enye.

(b) Nkeji nke abụọ na-egosi ụdị ọrụ dị iche iche e ji ego arụ. Ọ na-arụ ma nke dị mma ma nke dị njọ.

(ch) Na nkeji nke atọ isiokwu ya nwere ike bụrụ obi añụrị na nsọpụrụ Ego na-enye. 

7. Nchịkọta ihe abụ a na-ekwu: 

Abụ a na-eto Ego maka aka ọrụ ya dị iche iche. O kwuru na Ego na-esi obi ike, ọ na-aru ọrụ ọma na-arụkwa ọrụ ọjọọ. Ọ tụrụ ya n’anya ụdị añụrị Ego na-enye ma na-ajụkwa ebe nsọpụrụ a naenye ya si. 

8. Echiche dị n’abụ a: 

Echiche dị n’abụ a bụ na Ego dị mkpa ma na mmadụ ga-akpachara anya n’ebe Ego dị, n’ihi na ọ bụghị naani ọrụ dị mma ka ọ na-arụ. 

9. Asụsụnka:

Ndị odee jiri asụsụ gara werewere n’ọnụ wee dee abụ ha. 

Asụsụnka ndị ha webatara bụ:

Myiri: Onye ị kọrọ n’aka dịka onye ọbara gwụrụ n’ahụ. 

Mmemmadụ:

Mma na-asụ ọhịa akaghị gị. 

Ị na-agụghe ụzọ na-agụchikwa ya. 

Ego olee ebee ike gị si?

Ọpụtara na ọ bụ gị bụ añụrị?

Nsọpụrụ a na-enye gị si ebee bịa? 

Mmasị onye ntụle: Ndị odee detara abụ ha nke ọma. Onye ọbụla gụrụ ya ga-enwe mmasị.

ULE

1. Aha abụ a bụ ULE
2. Ọ bụ Ezeuko R.O. na Anọwai J.I. dere ya.
3. Isiokwu dị n’Abụ a: 

Ọ na-akọwa maka ụmụakwụkwọ na ule. Mbọ niile ndị isiụlọakwụkwọ na ndịnkuzị na-agba ịhụ na ụmụakwụkwọ ha gafere nke ọma n’ule na-ala n’efu n’ihi akwadoghị nke ọma dị n’ebe ụmụakwụkwọ nọ.

4. Nhazị Abụ

Ndị odee haziri abụ ha na nkeji na nkeji.

Ọ dị nkeji atọ.

Nkeji nke mbụ dị ahịrị atọ.

Nkeji nke abụọ dị ahịrị itoolu.

Ebe nke atọ dị ahịrị ise.

Na nkeji ọbụla, ahịrịokwu niile dị na ya ahaghị nhatanha.

Ọ bụ ahịrị nke atọ na nkeji nke mbụ tokarịsịrị ogologo. 

5. Isiokwu dị na nkeji ọbụla

Nkeji (i) Isiokwu ya bụ na onyeisi ụlọakwụkwọ na ndịnkuzi arụọla ọrụ ha otu o kwesịrị.

Nkeji (ii) Nke a na-ekwu na ebe a kaarala ya, na ọlịla azụ adịghịkwa ya.

Nkeji (iii) Nke a bụ ụbọchị ule kpọmkwem, ndịkwadoro nke ọma azawala ihe a jụrụ ha ma ndị akwadoghị nke ọma ga na-ele anya n’elu ziii na-amaghịkwa ihe ha ga-ede.

6. Nchịkọta ihe Abụ a na-ekwu:

Abụ a na-ekwu ihe gbasara ule na nleghara aya ụmụakwụkwọ na-eme ruo mgbe oge ule ahụ bịara nso. Ha agaghịkwa akwado ya nke ọma nke ga-ebute ọdịda n’ule ahụ. 

7. Echiche dị n’Abụ a bụ ọghọm na uru dị na nkwado na-akwadoghị ule n’oge.
8. Ụdị Abụ ọbụ.

Abụ a bụ abụ echiche miri emi n’ihi na o gosipụtarauru na ọghọm dị n’ibido n’oge kwadowe ihe ọbụlammadụ chọrọ ime, nakwa ebidoghị n’oge kwadobe ihe.

9. Asụsụnka 

Ndị odee jiri asụsụnka ndị a chọọ abụ ha mma. 

Ntimkpu: Ewoo! O ruolanụ oo!

Ajụasaghị – Olee kwanụ maka gị bụ nwaakwụkwọ? A ga-ebido na nkea ka ọ bụ na nkea? 

Myiri – Ịmatụ olu ka ele erughị ya. 

Mmasị onye ntụle: Abụ a gosiri akaọrụ onye aka kara aka n’asụsụ Igbo. 

URA NA ỤMỤAKWỤKWỌ

1. Aha abụ: Aha abụ a bụ Ụra na Ụmụakwụkwọ 
2. Aha ndị odee: Maazị Ezeuko R.O na Anọwai J.Idere ya.
3. Isiokwu dị n’abụ a na-ekwu ihe gbasara ihe ụra na-eme ụmụakwụkwọ, mbọ, niile ụmụakwụkwọ na-agha ka ha wee gbanahụ ụra nke na-enweghị isi. 
4. Nhazi Abụ – Ndị odee dere abụ ha na nkeji na nkeji. Ọ dị nkeji anọ. 

Nkeji nke mbụ na nke atọ dịcha ahịrị anọ ebe nkeji nke mbụ na nke atọ dịcha abụọ na nke anọ dịcha ahịrị ise ise. 

5. Isiokwu si na nkeji nke ọbụla.
6. Nkeji nke mbụ na-ekwu maka nchọpụta nwataakwụkwọ mere gbasara akwụkwọ ndị o metụbeghị aka nke ọ ga-agụrịrị n’ụbọchị ahụ. 
7. Nkeji nke abụọ na-ekwu ihe ndị ụmụakwụkwọ chere na ọ na-akwụsị ụra nke ha na-atụtụkọta mgbe ọbụla ha chọrọ ịgụ akwụkwọ ma chụọkwa ụra ọsọ.

 iii. Nkeji nke atọ na-egosi na ụra achọghị ihe onyinye ndị a ụmụakwụkwọ na-enye ya. 

1. Nkeji nke anọ gosiri otu ụra si enweta ụmụakwụkwọ 
2. Nchịkọta ihe Abụ na-ekwu:

Abụ a na-ekwu ihe gbasara Ụra na Ụmụakwụkwọ, otu ụra na ụmụakwụkwọ si ekwe n’aka mgba mgbe ọbụla ha chọrọ ịgụ akwụkwọ. Ọtutu ihe ụmụakwụkwọ ji achu ura ma otu si emechaa ma merie ha. 

8. Echiche dị n’abụ: Abụ a na-ekwu maka ihe ụra na-eme ụmụakwụkwọ na-agbanyeghị mbọ niile ha na-agba ka ha merie ụra. 
9. Ụdị Abụ ọbụ: Abụ a bụ Abụ echiche miri emi n’ihi na ndị odee gbara mbọ chọpụta ihe niile ụmụakwụkwọji echere ụra aka mgba ma ụra anaghịkwa anụ ihe ndịahụ niile.
10. Asụsụ nka: Ndị odee ji asụsụnka ndịa chọọ abụ ha mma. 

Ntimkpu: Ewo! Ule a atụnyela n’ụkwụ

Mmemmadụ: Ma chere ka m were ibe ndị a fe ofufe nhụnye ụra.

– Mụ bụ ụra achọghị ihe onyinye ndịa.

– Sọ inwere onwe m dịka Chineice 

– Siri kee m na-adị m mma.

– Ka m gwa gị anọchirila m ụzọ.

– Hapụ m aka.

– Jiri aka gị chọpụta ndị ọzọ

 Mmasị onye ntụle: Abụ a mara mma nke ukwu ma na-akụzikwa ihe. 

ỌKỌCHI

Aha abụ: Aha abụ a bụ ọkọchi

Aha Ndị odee: Ezeuko R.O., Anọwai J.I dere ya. 

4. Isiokwu dị n’abụ: Abụ a na-ekwu maka ọkọchi, ajọmmekpa ahụ ọ na-enye na ihe ọma so ya. 
5. Nhazi: Ndị odee haziri abụ ha na nkeji na nkeji. Ọ dịnkeji atọ ebe nkeji nke mbụ na nke abụọ dịcha ahịrịisii. Na nkeji ọbụla ahịrịokwu niile dị na ya ahaghịnhatanha. Ọ bụ ahịrị nke Ikpeazụ na nkeji nke atọtokarịchara n’ogologo. 
6. Isiokwu dị na nkeji ọbụla:

Nkeji (1) na-akọwa oke ọsịsọ so ọkọchị si emekpa ndịmmadụ ahụ. 

Nkeji (2) na-akọwa ihe ọjọọ so ọkọchi. 

Nkeji (3) na-akọwakwa ezigbo ihe ọkọchi na-ebute. 

7. Nchịkọta ihe Abụ a na-ekwu:

Abụ a na-ekwu ihe gbasara uru na ọghọm ọkọchi na-ewetara ma ndị mmadụ ma ụmụanụmanụ. Na mbido, ndị odee kwuru na ọsịsọọ so ọkọchi anyụọla mmadụanya nke bụ na o nweghị ebe onye nọ dị mma. Ma n’ime ụlọ, ma n’ụlọ. 

8. Echiche dị n’abụ a: 

Echiche dị n’abụ a bụ na ọkọchi na-eweta ma ihe ọjọọma ihe dị mma. 

9. Ụdị Abụ ọ bụ:

Abụ a bụ abụ echiche miri emi n’ihi na ndị odee kawara ahụ chepụta ma ihe ọma ma ihe ọjọọ ọkọchi na-eweta. 

10. Asụsụnka dị n’abụ a:

Ndị odee ji asụsụnka ndịa chọọ abụ ha mma.

(i) Mmemmadụ: Ndị odee na-agwa ọkọchi ọtụtụ ihe, ka-a ga-asị na ọ bụ mmadụ dịka ndịa –

Nwa gị bụ ọsịsọọ

Anyụọla mmadụ anya

Gị mere na mmadụ na-apụ ọrịrị uchichi 

(ii) Mbụrụ: Ị bụ nshansha mmiri…

(iii) Mkpesara: Ị butere agụụ mmiri.

Mee ndị ọrụugbo ịnọ nkịtị… 

Mmasị onye ntule: 

N’ezie, abụ a tọrọ ụtọ ma nweekwa nghọta miri emi. 

(b) NNYOCHA ABỤ

1. ​Aha abụ.

Aha abụa bụ Adị m oji

2. ​Onye dere ya bu Maazị G.N. Echebima.
3. ​Isiokwu dị n’abụ a bụ na otu chi kere ya dị ya mma.
4. ​Usoro/nhazi abụ

​Ọkpọ abụ a haziri abụ ya na nkeji na nkeji. Ha dị nkeji anọ dị n’abụ a.

​Nkeji nke mbụ dị ahịrị anọ.

​Nke abụọ dị ahịrị ise.

​Nke atọ dị ahịrị ise.

​Ebe nke anọ dị ahịrị atọ.

5. Isiokwu dị na stanza ọbụla

Nkeji (1) odee na-enwe anụrị na ya dị oji

Nkeji (2) odee na-akọwa uru oji bara.

Nkeji (3) odee na-ekwusi ike na ya chọrọ ịdị oji.

Nkeji (4) odee nabatara otu ya dị.

6. Nchịkọta ihe abụ na-ekwu.

Abụ a na-akọwa na ihe chi nyere onye ya nara n’ihi na

Chukwu ka anyị mara nke anyị chọrọ. 

7. Echiche dị n’abụ bụ na nke onye ji ka
8. Abụ a bụ abụ otito
9. Naanị asụsụnka m hụrụ ebe a bụ ekwuo ekwugharịa

​= ​obi dị m ụtọ

​obi dị m ụtọ dgz

oji ……. bụ ike

oji ……. bụ dike

oji …… bụ mma…

10. Mmasị onye ntụle. N’obi onye ntụle, odee gbọrọihe Ewu na-ata. Abụ ya dị nke nke ma dịkwa ụtọ. O ji asụsụ gara were were n’ọnụ wee dee ya.

ONYE KA O ZUURU?

1. Aha abụ a bụ “Onye Ka O Zuuru”?
2. Onye dere ya bụ Maazị G.N. Echebima.
3. Isiokwu dị n’abụ a bụ na o nweghị onye o zuuru. Ka ọ dị onye ukwu ka ọ dị onye nta.
4. Odee ahazighị abụ ya na nkeji na nkeji. O dekọdoro ya n’otu nkeji dị ahịrị iri abụọ n’otu.
5. Ihe abụa na-ekwu bụ na o nweghị onye ga-asị na o zuru ya. Ma onye ọbụla ga-ewere ụwa otu o si hụ ya ma kwusị ichekasị na idogbu onwe ya.
6. Echiche dị n’abụ a bụ na mmadụ kwesiri iwere ụwaotu o si hụ ya.
7. Abụ a bụ abụ echiche miri emi n’ihi na odee nọọrọ ala, chee echiche ma chọpụtakwa na ụwa adịghị ka mmadụ chere.
8. Odee ji asụsụnka ndịa wee chọọ abụ ya mma:

Ajụọasaghị juru eju na ya.

​Olumba ​- ​ma olị

 Mmasị onye Ntụle/Nnyocha:

Maazị G.N. Echebima mere nke ọma n’abụ a Onye ọbụla gụrụ ya ga-enwe mmasị n’ihi echiche dị na ya. 

ỊHỤNAANYA:

1. Aha abụ a bụ “Ịhụnaanya”
2. Onye dere ya bụ Maazị G.N. Echebima.
3. Isiokwu dị n’abụ a bụ na Ịhụnaanya adịghị mfe. N’ ọ bụ ihe siri ike inweta.
4. Odee haziri abụ ya na nkeji na nkeji.

Ọ dị nkeji ise. 

Nkeji nke mbụ dị ahịrị abụọ.

Nkeji nke abụọ na nke ikpe azụ dị ahịrị itoolu itoolu.

Ebe nke atọ dị ahịrị iri na otu.

Nkeji nke anọ dị ahịrị iri.

5. Ihe abụ a na-ekwu bụ na Ịhụnaanya siri ike inweta. Na o nweghị ihe mmadụ agaghị emefọrọ onye ọ hụrụn’anya.
6. Echiche dị n’abụ a bụ na o nweghị ihe mmadụ na-agaghị emere onye ọ hụrụ n’anya ka obi wee dị ya mma. Ọ na-egosikwa Ịhụnaanya o nwere n’ebe Ezi Ala ya dị.
7. Abụ a bụ abụ otito.
8. Odee ji asụsụnka ndịa wee chọọ abụ ya mma.

Ntimkpụ​: ​Ewo!

Ajụọasaghị​: ​Olee ihem ga-eme?

 Enyookwu: E nwere enyookwu mgbe ọ kpọrọ Ezi ada ya “kpakpando nke m”

 Mmasị Onye Ntule/Nnyocha:

N’ezie abụ a bụ aka kara aka n’asụsụ Igbo dere ya. Ọdị ụtọ ọgụgụ ma nweekwa nghọta miri emi. Odee gbaliri ma zụtakwa ihe a tụrụ ya n’ahia.

NDỤ NA ỌNWỤ

1. Aha abụ a bụ Ndụ na Ọnwụ​
2. Onye dere ya bụ Maazị G.N. Echebima.
3. Isiokwu dị n’abụ a bụ nkọwa ihe ndụ na ọnwụ bụ.
4. Odee haziri abụ ya na nkeji na nkeji. Ọ dị nkeji atọ:

Nkeji nke mbụ dị ahịrị anọ.

Nkeji nke abụọ dịrị ahịrị ise ebe

Nkeji nke atọ dị ahịrị isii.

Ahịrịokwu ha niile ahaghị nhataaha.

5. Isiokwu dị na nkeji ọbụla:

Nkeji (i) na-akọwa ihe ndụ bụ.

Nkeji (ii) na-akọwa ihe ndụ na-enye.

Nkeji (iii) na-akọwakwa ihe ọnwụ bụ ma na-ebutekwa.

6. Ihe nke abụọ na-ekwu bụ na ndụ na ọnwụ abụghị otu ihe. Na ebe ndụ na-ebute ihe ọma dị iche iche na ọnwụna aka nke ya na-ebutekwa ọtụtụ ihe ọjọọ na obi mgbu.  
7. Echiche dị n’abụ a bụ na ndụ bụ ihe ukwu nke onye ọbụla kwesiri ijide nke ya n’ihi na ọnwụ bụ mmeri.
8. Abụ a bụ abụ echiche miri emi. 
9. Odee ji asụsụnka ndịa wee chọọ abụ ya mma:

Nkejiasụsụ Ntimkpu: Ee! ndụ dị ụtọ

Ekwuekwugharịa​Ndụ ndụ 

​Ndụ bụ ọnụ 

Mmasị onye Ntụle/Nnyocha:

Maazị G. N. Echebima detara abụ a nke ọma. Ọ dịghị onye ga-agụ ya wee ghara inwe mmasị

EDENSIBỊA

Ezuko na Anọwai (1986). Abụ Echiche. Etukokwu Publishers

G.N. Echebima (1990). Abụ Ekele  Dike. Heineman